Language Construction Handbook
$10
A comprehensive introduction to conlanging.
Phonology
Segmental
Consonants
| Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Palatal | Dorsal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stop | p | t d | k g | ||
| Fricative | v | ð (dh) | s | x (h) | |
| Nasal | m | n | |||
| Liquid | l | r | |||
| Glide | j (y) |
Vowels
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| High | i | u | |
| Mid | ə (e) | ɔ | |
| Low | a |
Diphthongs: ai əi (ei)
Suprasegmental
Stress: antepenultimate, except in a few words
Phonotactics
The syllable structure is (C)V(n/s/t). The segment /ð/ may not appear word-initially.
Morphology
Nouns
stem + (possessed) + (plural)
Number
| Singular | Plural |
|---|---|
| -∅ | -n |
Case
Possessed marker: -t
Pronouns and agreement
Dependent paradigm:
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | ||
| 2nd | ||
| 3rd | -∅ |
Independent paradigm:
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | ||
| 2nd | ||
| 3rd | te |
TAM
Perfective
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | va-tu | |
| 2nd | ||
| 3rd | yas | |
| 4th | a-tu |
Relative Perfective
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | va-ne | |
| 2nd | ||
| 3rd | ya | |
| 4th | a-ne |
Continuous
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | va-na | |
| 2nd | mu-na | |
| 3rd | ya-na | |
| 4th | a-na |
Relative Continuous
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | va-lei | |
| 2nd | ||
| 3rd | ya-lei | |
| 4th | a-lei |
Habitual
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | va-naitu | |
| 2nd | ||
| 3rd | ya-naitu | |
| 4th | a-naitu |
Syntax
Pragmatically marked structures
Topicalization and focus are both prominent features of Dara Vai and both expressed via left dislocation. When both a topicalized and a focused element are present, the topicalized element appears before the focused element.
Hivas narat edei, Seipai ma ya deisin tot.[ride horse indeed =TOP], [Seipai =FOC] COP 3SG.REL.PFV exceed everyone
As for riding, it's Seipai who beats them all.
Topicalization
Topicalization, as mentioned above, is marked by left-dislocation. Optionally, a topic marker such as edei indeed or padai too is placed after the topicalized element.
Magu, va-naitu moti kende-t kopoka yata nainai.wheat 1PL-HAB can getting-POSS sack ten like.this
Wheat, we can get about ten sacks of.
Atamu padai, va-naitu moti kende-t kopoka yata me tano.rice too 1PL.HAB can getting-POSS sack ten plus five
Rice, we can get fifteen sacks of.
Focus
A focused element is left-dislocated and optionally followed by the copula ma. Additionally, the TAM marker is replaced with a relative form: relative perfect instead of perfect, or relative continous instead of continuous.
Danako-n yas vaka gani itínaboy-DEF 3SG.PFV eat meat yesterday
The boy ate meat yesterday.
Danako-n (ma) ya vaka gani itínaboy-DEF COP 3SG.REL.PFV eat meat yesterday
The boy ate meat yesterday.
Gani (ma) danako-n ya vaka itínameat COP boy-DEF 3SG.REL.PFV eat yesterday
The boy ate meat yesterday.
Itína (ma) danako-n ya vaka ganiyesterday COP boy-DEF 3SG.REL.PFV eat meat
The boy ate meat yesterday.
Vaka-t gani (ma) danako-n ya hei itína.eat meat COP boy-DEF 3SG.REL.PFV do yesterday
The boy did eat meat yesterday.
Danako-n yana vaka gani ai tanditaiboy-DEF 3SG.CONT eat meat at market
The boy is eating meat at the market.
Danako-n (ma) yalei vaka gani ai tanditaiboy-DEF COP 3SG.REL.CONT eat meat at market
The boy is eating meat at the market.
Gani (ma) danako-n yalei vaka ai tanditaimeat COP boy-DEF 3SG.REL.CONT eat at market
The boy is eating meat at the market.
Ai tanditai (ma) danako-n yalei vaka ganiat market COP boy-DEF 3SG.REL.CONT eat meat
The boy is eating meat at the market.
Vaka-t gani (ma) danako-n yalei hei ai tanditaieat-POSS meat COP boy-DEF 3SG.REL.CONT do at market
The boy is eating meat at the market.
Ki han ma alei sa-yu Akaihaipa?
INST there COP 4.REL.PFV get-VENT Akaihaipa
Is it there that one finds the Akaihaipa?
Questions
Nai vami muna ha gamai-ve padái pekut-oti?
well how 2PL.REL.CONT with cattle-PL too cattle.driver-PL
Well, how do you (do) with animals and cattle-drivers?
Unsorted example sentences
Tin ma.DIST.DEM COP
That's it.
Opoka-n ma.town-PL COP
They're towns.
Serai eiko vai paha-t-∅ va ma matái.EVD indeed NEG1 house-POSS-3SG NEG2 COP now
He said it was no longer his house.
Ahei ovo.exist water
There is water.
Ahei ovo? Ahei vai(va) ovo.exist water? exist NEG water
Is there water? There isn't water.
Ahei ovo? Ahei vaiva.exist water? exist NEG
Is there water? There isn't.
Vaiva is required when no complement follows.
Ahei-∅.exist-3SG
She is there.
In the positive, the thing that exists is expressed in the dependent form (as an affix).
Ahei vai te.exist NEG 3SG
She is not there.
But in the negative, the thing that does not exist takes the independent form.
Lexicon
| Gloss | |
|---|---|
| *ahei | exist |
| ai | LOC |
| atamu | rice |
| *kopoka | sack |
| dai | REL.IPFV |
| danako | boy |
| deisin | surpass, exceed |
| edei | indeed; TOP |
| eiko | indeed |
| eitin | what |
| gamai, -ve | cattle |
| gani | meat |
| ha | with |
| han | there |
| hivas | ride |
| itína | yesterday |
| kende | get |
| ki | INST |
| *kopoka | sack |
| ma | COP |
| me | plus |
| magu | wheat |
| matái | now |
| *meiya | cabbage |
| moti | can, able to |
| narat | horse |
| nai | well, ... |
| nainai | like this |
| *opoka | town |
| ovo | water |
| padai | too; TOP |
| paha | house |
| pekuta, -oti | cattle driver |
| sa | get |
| *serai | EVD |
| *seipai | robust |
| tanditai | market |
| tano | five |
| te | 3SG (independent) |
| tipa | name |
| tin | DIST.DEM |
| tot | everyone |
| vaka | eat |
| vami | how |
| vanaitu | 1SG.HAB |
| vai...a | NEG (with copula) |
| vai(va) | NEG (with existential) |
| ya | 3SG.REL.PFV |
| yas | 3SG.PFV |
| yata | ten |